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Climate Zones By Altitude

Basics - Meteorology & Ecology

Temperature: 1,000 m higher, the air temperature is around 5 C colder, or around 3 F (1.67 C) every 1,000 ft (304.8 m). Saturated adiabatic lapse rate is usually near +4.9 C/1,000 m (+2.7 F/1,000 ft or +1.51 C/1,000 ft) at temperatures above freezing.

Humidity: every 5C warmer, the water vapor content of saturated air increases around 30%.

Belm PA; Brazil; 24 m; tropical moist broadleaf forest; avg annual temperature 26.0 C; avg annual precipitation 2,897 mm. Antarctica has a estimated avg annual precipitation around of 400 mm; at an avg annual temperature around -6 C; around sea level.

Malindi; Kenya; 23 m, avg annual temperature 26.5 C, avg annual precipitation 1,095 mm. The avg annual temperature of the Kilimanjaro summit is -7.1 C, Kibo 5,895 m. The summit has an estimated annual precipitation around 75 mm or 1.5 m snow.

Growing season: the Tropics do not have seasons, only the dry and the rain season. Although the day and night cycle in the Tropics is more important than in the Temperate Region. Between Tropic of Cancer and North Pole, and Tropic of Capricorn and South Pole the growing season is 1 2 weeks shorter every 100 m more height. Example: Agriculture needs a growing season of more than 100 days; Rabensteiner Forest, Chemnitz ( ge) has 185 days at ca. 400 m; the Alps ( ge) have ca. 75 days at 2,000 m; so the growing season is 7 days shorter every 100 m.

Biogeography (WWF):

Ecoregions borders are most of the times a compromise of the distribution of many species.

Ecoregions have most of the times an intrinsic inhomogeneity.

Borders of ecoregions are most of the times a transition, they are an ecotone.

Climate Zones

See also: Altitudinal zonation

Central Europe: Switzerland & Germany

Planar, under 300 m (East Alps), under 150 m (Central German hills), agriculture.

Colin, 300 - 800 m (East Alps), 150 - 300 m (Central German hills), oak limit (Quercus spp.). European Beech (Fagus sylvatica), Sessile oak (Quercus petraea), Pedunculate oak or English oak (Quercus robur), European or common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and small-leaved Lime (Tilia cordata). Grape crop limit (Vitis spp.), around 600 m, Switzerland, North Side, South Slope, estimated 7.5 C. Crops: maize for feed; sweet maize (Zea mays).

Submontane, 700 - 1,000 m (East Alps), 300 - 450 m (Central German hills), European Beech (Fagus sylvatica), Silver Fir or European Silver Fir (Abies alba) and Norway Spruce (Picea abies). Coniferous forests by reforestation limit around 800 m, North Side.

Montane, 800 1,200 m (East Alps), 450 650 m (Central German hills), rye (Secale cereale) and wheat (Triticum spp.) crop limit.

Mean Montane, 1,000 1,400 m (East Alps), 650 800 m (Central German hills). Limit of the whole year populated areas. Limit of a growing season of more than 100 days.

Altimontane, 1,300 1,850 m (East Alps), 800 1,500 m (Central German hills). Deciduous forests limit, Sycamore Maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) and European Beech (Fagus sylvatica).

Subalpine, 1,500 2,500 m (East Alps), above 1,500 m (Central German hills), Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris), Norway Spruce (Picea abies), Swiss Pine (Pinus cembra, Arve or Zirbel) limit and European Larch (Larix decidua) limit, 2,000 m, some specimens up to 2,850 m, South Slope. Tree line and Krummholz zone or ecotone (stunted subalpine bushes), Sub-alpine meadow and Alpine climate.

Alpine, 2,000 - 3,000 m (East Alps), Montane grasslands and shrublands. Mountain Pine or Mugo Pine (Pinus mugo) limit. Alpine meadows just used in the warm season.

Nival, above 3,000 m (East Alps), alpine desert, scree, permafrost and above snow line.

Example: Alps, North Side; Switzerland

Location, avg annual precipitation (mm), altitude (amsl) and avg annual temperature (C):

Approx. coordinates

of the weather station

Precipitation

Altitude

Temperature

Weissfluhjoch

46500 94823 / 46.833333N 9.80639E / 46.833333; 9.80639 (Weissfluhjoch)

1,158 mm

2,690 m

-3.2 C

Pilatus

465845 81522 / 46.97917N 8.25611E / 46.97917; 8.25611 (Pilatus)

1,842 mm

2,106 m

0.9 C

Napf

47015 75624 / 47.00417N 7.94E / 47.00417; 7.94 (Napf)

1,355 mm

1,406 m

4.0 C

Engelberg

46500 8230 / 46.833333N 8.383333E / 46.833333; 8.383333 (Engelberg)

1,571 mm

1,035 m

5.4 C

Buchs-Suhr

47230 08040 / 47.383333N 8.066667E / 47.383333; 8.066667 (Buchs, Aargau and Suhr, Aargau)

1,027 mm

387 m

8.6 C

Notes

Biomes & Ecoregions nearby:

Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests

-. Western European broadleaf forests

Temperate coniferous forests

-. Alps conifer and mixed forests

Mediterranean: Orjen

See also: Orjen#Vegetation

Orjen vegetation profile. ME: meridional (subtropic belt); NE: nemoral (temperate zone); BO: boreal (taiga zone); AL: lpine (tundra zone).

Mediterranean vegetation shows a variety of ecological adaptations to hot and dry summer conditions. As Mediterranean vegetational formations differ both in species and composition from temperate vegetation, a special terminology for the Mediterranean altitudinal zonations was established:

Eu-mediterranean belt: 20- 16 C (avg annual temperature)

Sub-mediterranean belt: 15- 12 C

Hilly region: 11- 8 C

Mountainous belt: 7- 4 C

Alpine belt: 3- 0 C

Subnival belt: 0- minus 4 C

Mountains of the classical Mediterranean Basin are generally distinguished between north-mediterranean transitional ecozones with lower mediterranean and upper alpine altitudinal zonation (for instance South- und Maritime Alps) and eu-mediterranean (for instance Pindus, South Apennine Mountains, Sierra Nevada), and xero-mediterranean (drier ranges of North Africa, Atlas) and the Near East (Mount Lebanon, Taurus) types.

Dryness generally favours drought resistant conifers to form Tree lines on Mediterranean mountains; endemic xero-basophilous conifers like Bosnian Pine (Pinus heldreichii) (Southeast Dinaric Alps), Greek Fir (Abies cephalonica) (Pindus), Spanish Fir (Abies pinsapo) (Sierra Nevada) as well as Cilician Fir (Abies cilicica), Algerian Fir (Abies numidica), Lebanon Cedar (Cedrus libani) and Atlas Cedar (Cedrus libani var. atlantica) (Taurus Mountains and Atlas Mountains) form these oro-mediterranean xerophilous forests.

An example to the eu-mediterranean altitudinal zonation comes from the Orjen-range in the southeastern coastal Dinaric ranges.

Mediterranean Sea.

Eu-mediterranean (lower subtropical belt, ME= Meridional); 0 - 400 m, Holm Oak (Quercus ilex), Kermes Oak (Quercus coccifera), Olive tree (Olea europaea). More humid habitats show Bay Laurel (Laurus nobilis) and Oleander (Nerium oleander) formations.

Supra-mediterranean (upper subtropical belt, SME= Supra-meridional); 400 - 1,100 m, Macedonian Oak (Quercus trojana) and Oriental Hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis); above Turkey Oak (Quercus cerris) and Hungarian Oak or Italian Oak (Quercus frainetto). With more humidity: Forests of Sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa), Downy Oak or Pubescent Oak (Quercus pubescens) and European Hophornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia Scop.).

Oro-mediterranean (temperate zone, NE= Nemoral); 1,100 - 1,450 m, Forest of Common Beech (Fagus sylvatica) over calcareous soil. Dinaric calcareous block fir forest; European Silver Fir (Abies alba).

Alti-mediterranean (taiga zone, BO= Boreal); 1,450 - 1,700 m, European Beech (Fagus sylvatica), Bosnian Pine (Pinus heldreichii), Greek Maple (Acer heldreichii) at the Tree line. The less humid regions have Juniper (and for example: Iris orjenii, Viola chelmea) over Sesleria robusta grasses.

Cry-omediterranean (tundra zone, AL= Alpine); 1,700 - 1,900 m, Xerophytes. Trifolium, Narcissus, Gentiana nivalis, Draba hoppeanae, Androsace alpina.

Notes:

Most important trees: European Silver Fir (Abies alba); Bosnian Pine (Pinus heldreichii); European Beech or Common Beech (Fagus sylvatica); Turkish Hazel (Corylus colurna); European Hophornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia); European Black Pine (Pinus nigra); European Ash or Common Ash (Fraxinus excelsior).

Translation of the image's legend. "Formationen in denen die Tanne auftritt sind"; Types of coniferous forest with European Silver Fir (Abies alba). "Dinarische Karst-Blockhalden-Tannenwaelder"; Dinaric calcareous block fir forest. "Kiefern-Tannenwald"; Bosnian Pine (Pinus heldreichii). "Tannen-Buchenwald"; European Beech or Common Beech (Fagus sylvatica). "Hopfenbuchen-Tannenwald"; European Hophornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia).

Mediterranean: Sierra Nevada (Spain)

Thermomediterranean zone (Lowland); under 700 (amsl).

Summers are hot here and winters almost nonexistent. This zone is mostly used for agriculture, but studies say Mastic (Pistacia lentiscus), Common Juniper (Juniperus communis) , (Aristolochia baetica) and Mediterranean Smilax or Common Smilax (Smilax aspera) would normally grow here. On poor soils by for example forest fires there are Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), Pourret (Ulex parviflorus) and Gum Rockrose (Cistus ladanifer) present too.

Mesomediterranean zone (Submontane); 700 to 1,300 (amsl).

The summers are here still hot but frosts are normal in the winters. In this zone Mastic (Pistacia lentiscus), wild Olive (Olea europaea) and Mediterranean Smilax or Common Smilax (Smilax aspera) grow. Poor sandy soils have few species with the Holm Oak (Quercus ilex), the Common Junipers, (Juniperus communis), Daphne gnidium y Etruscan honeysuckle (Lonicera etrusca).

Supramediterranean zone (Mean Montane); 1,300 to 1,900 (amsl).

The summers are here temperate and frosts and snow are frequent in winter. Quercus pyrenaica predominates, Portuguese Oak (Quercus faginea) and maple appear too; these three species make up the forest. More frequent are the Sessile Oaks (Quercus petraea) between 1,300 and 1,750 m. The Sessile Oaks are dominated by the Holm Oaks (Quercus ilex) and, depending on soil and altitude, by bushes as Common Juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus), barberry (Berberis hispanica), (Daphne gnidium), Butcher's broom (Ruscus aculeatus) and Common Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) over basic soils.

Oromediterranean zone (Subalpine); 1,900 m to about 2,700 (amsl).

In this zone coniferous plants and sparse Juniperus thurifera appear. The vegetation is composed by trees and bushes (Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris), Savin Juniper (Juniperus sabina), Juniperus communis subsp. hemisphaerica, Prunus ramburii) and other bushes (Vella spinosa, Erinacea anthyllis, Bupleurum spinosum). On better soils the Common Juniper, Juniperus communis and Cytisus appears, forming communities with Arenaria imbricata, Festuca indigesta. The endemic flora is present too: Genista versicolor, Arenaria pungens, Potentilla nevadensis.

Cryo-oromediterranean zone (Mountain tops); 2,600 to 2,800 (amsl).

Ligneous plants can not grow here because of the seasonal dryness typical of the mediterranean climate and the presence of snow for more than 8 months. The vegetation has similarities to the artic tundra, with the Mat-grass (Nardus stricta) as the most common species.

Mediterranean: Corsica

Thermomediterranean vegetation belt, 150 m (south) and 100 m (north); shrub of Pistacia lentiscus and dense mediterranean coastal scrub (maquis) with Quercus ilex, Phillyrea, Myrtus communis and wild olive (Olea europea var. sylvestris).

Mesomediterranean vegetation belt, up to 700 m (northern slopes) and 900 m (southern slopes); Erica arborea, Arbutus unedo and Quercus ilex. Forests include Quercus suber, Pinus pinaster, Quercus pubescens and Castanea sativa too.

Supramediterranean vegetation belt, 500- 700 m up to 900- 1,000 m (northern slopes), or 800- 1,000 m to 1,200- 1,350 m (southern slopes); Erica arborea, Quercus ilex, Quercus petraea, Pinus nigra ssp. laricio, Almus cordata, Ilex aquifolium, Taxus baccata and Ostrya carpinifolia.

Montane vegetation belt, 900- 1,000 m to 1,600 m (northern slopes) and 1,300 to 1,800 m (southern slopes); forests of Pinus nigra ssp. laricio, Fagus sylvatica and Abies alba. Quercus ilex, Quercus pubescens, Pinus pinaster, Castanea sativa and Erica arborea not present anymore.

Cryo-oromediterranean vegetation belt, 1,700- 1,800 m to 2,200 m (only southern slopes); above the upper Tree line (Pinus nigra ssp. laricio goes up to 1,800 m), dwarft bushes of Genista lobelii var. lobelioides, Astragalus sirinicus ssp. genargenteus, Anthyllis hemanniae, Thymus herbabarona, Berberis aetnensis and Juniperus communis ssp. alpina.

Subalpine vegetation belt, 1,400- 1,600 m to 2,100 m (only northern slopes); Alnus viridis ssp. suaveolens, Acer pseudoplatanus, Sorbus aucuparia ssp. praemorsa.

Alpine vegetation belt, above 2,100 m; sparse vegetation.

Indicator plants: Rock Speedwell (Veronica fruticans), Potentilla crassinervia, Armeria pusilla, Cerastium thomasii, Phyteuma serratum, Stachys corsica e Helichrysum frigidum.

Mediterranean Climate

Example: Alps, South Side, Switzerland (CH) & Italy (IT)

Location, avg annual precipitation (mm), altitude (amsl) and avg annual temperature (C):

Approx. coordinates

of the weather station

Precipitation

Altitude

Temperature

Rolle Pass, IT

461747 114713 / 46.29639N 11.78694E / 46.29639; 11.78694 (Rolle Pass)

1,057 mm

2,006 m

2.5C

San Bernardino Pass, CH

462949 91019 / 46.49694N 9.17194E / 46.49694; 9.17194 (San Bernardino Pass)

1,734 mm

1,639 m

2.6C

Lake Reschen, IT

464800 103100 / 46.8N 10.5166667E / 46.8; 10.5166667 (Lake Reschen)

604 mm

1,461 m

4.8C

Poschiavo-Robbia, CH

462054 10340 / 46.34833N 10.06111E / 46.34833; 10.06111 (Poschiavo-Robbia)

1,057 mm

1,078 m

6.1C

Tarvisio, IT

46300 13350 / 46.5N 13.583333E / 46.5; 13.583333 (Tarvisio)

1,471 mm

778 m

7.6C

Locarno-Monti, CH

461016 84717 / 46.17111N 8.78806E / 46.17111; 8.78806 (Locarno)

1,806 mm

366 m

11.4C

Lugano Airport, CH

46015 85438 / 46.00417N 8.91056E / 46.00417; 8.91056 (Lugano Airport)

1,733 mm

273 m

11.3C

Genoa Cristoforo Colombo Airport, IT

442443 085031 / 44.41194N 8.84194E / 44.41194; 8.84194 (Genoa Airport)

1,072 mm

3 m

15.6C

Bari International Airport, IT

41820 164538 / 41.13889N 16.76056E / 41.13889; 16.76056 (Bari Airport)

657 mm

49 m

16.3C

Notes:

Venice and Triest are not considered under eumeditteranean climate. See on the image, where the olive tree bears fruit.

Venice Marco Polo Airport, Italy; altitude 6 m, avg annual temperature 12.7C, avg annual precipitation 801 mm.

Triest, Italy; altitude 20 m, avg annual temperature 14.4C, avg annual precipitation 1,045 mm.

There are even Olive tree orchards besides the railway of Guarda to Coimbra, on the south slope of the valley of the Mondego river. Carregal do Sal, altitude of the railway around 275 m (Reference: Penhas Douradas, Serra da Estrela, Portugal; altitude 1,388 amsl, annual mean temperature 9.0C).

Eumediterranean crops: Holm Oak (Quercus ilex); Olive tree (Olea europaea); Bay Laurel (Laurus nobilis); Common Fig (Ficus carica), Pomegranate (Punica granatum).

Notes

Biomes & Ecoregions nearby:

Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests

-. Po Basin mixed forests

-. Apennine deciduous montane forests

Temperate coniferous forests

-. Alps conifer and mixed forests

Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub

-. Corsican montane broadleaf and mixed forests

-. Italian sclerophyllous and semi-deciduous forests

-. South Apennine mixed montane forests

-. Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests

For comparison:

Curitiba PR; Brazil; 923 amsl; avg annual temperature 16.7C, avg annual precipitation 1,436 mm, 25260 49160 / 25.433333S 49.266667W / -25.433333; -49.266667 (Curitiba).

Crops: Peach (Prunus persica); Nectarine (Prunus persica var. nucipersica); Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica); Cabbage (Brassica oleracea); Maize as grain (Zea mays); Parana Pine (Araucaria angustifolia).

Florianpolis SC; Brazil; 2 amsl; avg annual temperature 20.4C; avg annual precipitation 1,409 mm, 27350 48340 / 27.583333S 48.566667W / -27.583333; -48.566667 (Florianpolis).

Example: Dinaric Alps, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina

Podgorica Airport, altitude 33 amsl, 422134 191507 / 42.35944N 19.25194E / 42.35944; 19.25194 (Podgorica airport)

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Daily Mean C (F)

4.9 C (40.8 F)

6.7 C (44.1 F)

9.9 C (49.8 F)

13.8 C (56.8 F)

18.8 C (65.8 F)

22.6 C (72.7 F)

25.7 C (78.3 F)

25.6 C (78.1 F)

21.4 C (70.5 F)

16.0 C (60.8 F)

10.7 C (51.3 F)

6.5 C (43.7 F)

15.2 C (59.4 F)

Avg Prec. (mm)

190

169

165

147

85

66

42

66

120

159

235

199

1,632

Source: Klimadiagramme.de

Climate data for Crkvice, 940 m

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Average high C (F)

4.9

(41)

5.5

(42)

8.1

(47)

12.0

(54)

16.8

(62)

20.5

(69)

23.8

(75)

23.9

(75)

20.3

(69)

16.0

(61)

10.4

(51)

6.5

(44)

Average low C (F)

-3.2

(26)

-2.6

(27)

-0.3

(31)

3.4

(38)

7.3

(45)

10.1

(50)

12.4

(54)

12.2

(54)

9.6

(49)

5.7

(42)

2.0

(36)

-1.5

(29)

Precipitation mm (inches)

584

(22.99)

474

(18.66)

507

(19.96)

386

(15.2)

204

(8.03)

134

(5.28)

74

(2.91)

142

(5.59)

256

(10.08)

499

(19.65)

720

(28.35)

642

(25.28)

Source: Hydrometeorologic Institute of Montenegro 2009

Crkvice, avg annual precipitation 4,622 mm/m, 4234 1838 / 42.567N 18.633E / 42.567; 18.633 (Crkvice)

Example: Sierra Nevada (Spain)

Almera, altitude 21 amsl, 365100 022300 / 36.85N 2.3833333W / 36.85; -2.3833333 (Almera Airport)

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Daily Mean C (F)

12.3 C (54.1 F)

12.7 C (54.9 F)

14.2 C (57.6 F)

15.9 C (60.6 F)

18.9 C (66.0 F)

22.1 C (71.8 F)

25.0 C (77.0 F)

26.0 C (78.8 F)

24.1 C (75.4 F)

19.9 C (67.8 F)

16.2 C (61.2 F)

13.3 C (55.9 F)

18.4 C (65.1 F)

Avg Prec. (mm)

25

20

23

28

18

9

0

1

11

29

31

20

215

Source: Klimadiagramme.de

Prado Llano, Sierra Nevada, Spain; 370500 032300 / 37.0833333N 3.3833333W / 37.0833333; -3.3833333 (Prado Llano, Sierra Nevada)

Climate data for Climate of Prado Llano, Albergue Juvenil (2,507 m)

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Average high C (F)

0.3

(33)

-0.9

(30)

0.6

(33)

3.2

(38)

4.6

(40)

14.2

(58)

21.6

(71)

19.8

(68)

14.2

(58)

10.4

(51)

3.5

(38)

2.6

(37)

Daily mean C (F)

-2.9

(27)

-4.4

(24)

-3.4

(26)

-0.6

(31)

0.9

(34)

9.9

(50)

16.6

(62)

15.2

(59)

9.9

(50)

6.3

(43)

0.1

(32)

-0.7

(31)

3.9

(39)

Average low C (F)

-6.1

(21)

-7.9

(18)

-7.5

(19)

-4.3

(24)

-2.9

(27)

5.6

(42)

11.9

(53)

10.6

(51)

5.7

(42)

2.2

(36)

-3.3

(26)

-4.0

(25)

Precipitation mm (inches)

86.7

(3.41)

91.2

(3.59)

78.8

(3.1)

53.8

(2.12)

53.6

(2.11)

29.7

(1.17)

6.1

(0.24)

11.7

(0.46)

33.7

(1.33)

69.0

(2.72)

85.2

(3.35)

93.1

(3.67)

692

(27.24)

Source: Phytosociological Research Center 2009

Example: Ajaccio, Corsica

Climate data for Ajaccio, 9 m

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Average high C (F)

13.3

(56)

13.3

(56)

14.4

(58)

16.7

(62)

20.6

(69)

23.9

(75)

27.2

(81)

27.8

(82)

25.6

(78)

21.7

(71)

17.2

(63)

14.4

(58)

19.4

(67)

Daily mean C (F)

8.1

(47)

8.8

(48)

10.1

(50)

12.3

(54)

15.9

(61)

19.5

(67)

22.3

(72)

22.3

(72)

19.9

(68)

16.5

(62)

12.2

(54)

9.1

(48)

14.8

(59)

Average low C (F)

3.9

(39)

4.4

(40)

5.6

(42)

7.2

(45)

10.6

(51)

13.9

(57)

16.7

(62)

17.2

(63)

15

(59)

11.7

(53)

7.8

(46)

5

(41)

10

(50)

Precipitation mm (inches)

73.7

(2.9)

63.5

(2.5)

61

(2.4)

53.3

(2.1)

40.6

(1.6)

22.9

(0.9)

7.6

(0.3)

15.2

(0.6)

43.2

(1.7)

86.4

(3.4)

101.6

(4)

83.8

(3.3)

662.9

(26.1)

Source: weatherbase.com 2009

Border of the Mediterranean climate and colder climates

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) distribution.

Swiss pine (Pinus cembra) distribution.

Cork oak (Quercus suber) distribution.

     Areas with Mediterranean climate - Sclerophyll forests

Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) distribution.

Umbrella pine (Pinus pinea) distribution.

Flora of Europe.

Olive tree orchards/ agriculture area.

Apenine Mountains.

Mediterranean Basin.

Atlas Mountains.

Temperature change by latitude.

See also

Kppen climate classification

Altitudinal zonation

Biome

List of ecoregions (WWF)

External links

Serra Verde Express - Curitiba; Morretes; Paranagu

Swiss Plant Biotopes

Literature

^ Adiabatic Lapse Rate, IUPAC Goldbook

^ a b c d e http://www.klimadiagramme.de/

^ http://www.geo.umass.edu/climate/tanzania/pubs/hardy_2003bams.pdf Kilimanjaro Snow; D. Hardy; BAMS; June 2003

^ Rhr, Paul Christen and Killingtveit, nund; Rainfall distribution on the slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro / Distribution des pluies sur les pentes du Mt Kilimandjaro; Hydrological Sciencesournales Sciences Hydrologiques, 48(1) February 2003; doi: 10.1623/hysj.48.1.65.43483

^ http://www.worldwildlife.org WWFBinaryitem6596.zip

^ Heinz Ellenberg: Vegetation Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen in kologischer, dynamischer und historischer Sicht. Ulmer, Stuttgart 1996

^ Hannes Mayer (1974); Wlder des Ostalpenraumes - Standort, Aufbau und waldbauliche Bedeutung der wichtigsten Waldgesellschaften in den Ostalpen samt Vorland.

^ Hannes Mayer (1984); Wlder Europas.

^ O. Wittmann (1983); Standortkundliche Landschaftsgliederung von Bayern. In: Materialien 21, Bayerisches Staatsministerium fr Landesentwicklung und Umweltfragen, Mnchen.

^ W. Kilian, F. Mller, F. Starlinger: Die forstlichen Wuchsgebiete sterreichs. Eine Naturraumgliederung nach waldkologischen Gesichtspunkten. Forstliche Bundesversuchsanstalt, Wien 1993, ISSN 0374-9037, S. 53ff (Webdokument, pdf; online: Die forstlichen Wuchsgebiete sterreichs. Institut fr Waldkologie und Boden, BfW, 2005-13-15. Retrieved on 2008-03-12.)

^ Hrdtle, W., Ewald, J., Hlzel, N. (2004); Wlder des Tieflandes und der Mittelgebirge. kosysteme Mitteleuropas in geobotanischer Sicht, Ulmer, Stuttgart, 257ff

^ a b http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/terrestrial.html WWF Global 200: World Map of 14 Terrestrial Biomes and 867 Ecoregions

^ PA0445 Western European broadleaf forests, WWF

^ PA0501 Alps conifer and mixed forests, WWF

^ Lakusic (1975); Priodni sistem geobiocenoza na planinama Dinaridima. God. Biol. Inst. Univ. Saraj. 28:175-191.

^ Ivo Horvat, Vjekoslav Glavac & Heinz Ellenber (1974); Vegetation Sdosteuropas.

^ a b Oleg S. Grebenscikov (1960); The Vegetation of the Kotor Bay Seabord (Montenegro, Yugoslavia) and some comparative studies with the Caucasian seaboard of the Black Sea. - Bjull Mskovsk. Obsc. Isp. Prir., Otd. Biol. 65: 99-108, Moscow.

^ Cikovac, Pavle (2002); Sociology and ecology of Silver Fir forests on Mt. Orjen - Montenegro. LMU Munich 2002, Department of Geography.

^ Antonic, O. and Lovric, A. Z. (1996); Numerical Analysis of Vegetation Complexes and Community Diversity of Major Coastal Dinaric Mountains, Journal of Vegetation Science, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 73-80.

^ Francisco Prez Raya, Joaqun Molero Mesa, Francisco Valle Tendero, (1992); "Parque Natural de Sierra Nevada. Paisaje, fauna, flora, itinerarios". Ed. Rueda. Madrid. ISBN 84-7207-067-0

^ Pablo Prieto Fernndez; "Flora de la Tundra de Sierra Nevada". Ed. Universidad de Granada. ISBN 84-600-1810-5

^ Aurelio del Castillo y Antonio del Castillo (2003); "Sierra Nevada: Gua de Montaa", Ed. Penibtica. ISBN 84-932022-3-1

^ Hannes Mayer (1988); Die Wlder Korsikas. Wanderungen durch ein Waldparadies.

^ Reille, M., Gamisans, J., de Beaulieu, J.-L., Andrieu, V. (2009); The late-glacial at Lac de Creno (Corsica, France): a key site in the western Mediterranean basin; New Phytologist Vol. 135, Issue 3, pp. 547 - 559

^ Gamisans, J. (1991); La vgtation de la Corse, Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genve, Suisse.

^ PA0432 Po Basin mixed forests, WWF

^ PA0401 Appenine deciduous montane forests, WWF

^ PA0501 Alps conifer and mixed forests, WWF

^ PA1204 Corsican montane broadleaf and mixed forests, WWF

^ PA1211 Italian sclerophyllous and semi-deciduous forests, WWF

^ PA1218 South Appenine mixed montane forests, WWF

^ PA1222 Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests, WWF

^ NT0101 Araucaria moist forests, WWF

^ NT0160 Serra do Mar coastal forests, WWF

^ NT1406 Belizean Reef mangroves, WWF

^ "Climate of Crkvice (1960-1991)". Hydrometeorologic Institute of Montenegro. http://195.66.163.23/misc.php?text=27&sektor=1. Retrieved 2009-03-16. 

^ "Datos climtolgicos de Sierra Nevada (1975-1989): Phytosociological Research Center". Phytosociological Research Center. http://www.ucm.es/info/cif/station/es-prad2.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-16. 

^ weatherbase.com

v  d  e

Ecozones

Afrotropic  Antarctic  Australasia  Indomalaya  Nearctic  Neotropic  Oceania  Palearctic

v  d  e

Terrestrial biomes

Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests  Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests  Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests  Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests  Temperate coniferous forests  Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub  Boreal forests/taiga  Mangrove  Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands  Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands  Flooded grasslands and savannas  Montane grasslands and shrublands  Deserts and xeric shrublands  Tundra

Categories: Ecozones | Biogeography | Montane ecologyHidden categories: Articles needing cleanup from March 2009 | All pages needing cleanup

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